Ancient: Q. Evaluate the introduction of iron technology in its development of human history of ancient India (2011)
Q. Discuss the types of lands and the science of agriculture mentioned in the literature and epigraphs of ancient India (2011)
Medieval: Q. Assess the contribution of Iltutmish for the expansion and consolidation of Delhi Sultante.
Q. Examine critically the agrarian and economic reforms of Alauddin Khalji. How did it strengthen the Sultante?
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Introduction of iron technology around 1000 BCE had changed the life of people and took a turn in the human history of ancient India. Effects of iron technology in the development of human history:
Iron ploughshare and equipments: Iron ploughshare and equipments like chisels, axe etc. had made agriculture easy as wood plough required very hard work. It had increased the agriculture production drastically and helped to establish sedentary life.
Forest clearance: Forests around Ganga doab were hard to clear earlier but after introduction of iron technology it became easy to clear forest and use it for agriculture or residence purpose.
Weapons: Iron weapons played vital role in the development of strong kingdom like Magadha which is blessed with iron ore resources. Territorial wars had been started and iron weapons decided the victory.
Thus iron technology not only was significant for the sedentary life of then people but also it was important to dominant the wars and conquer the territories and also to protect the territories from external invasions.
Land is divided into many types in ancient times according to contemporary literature and epigraphs. Following are some types in which land was divided:
KRISHTA: Cultivated land
AKRISHTA:Uncultivated land
STHALA: High and Dry ground.
Earlier agriculture was practiced with the help of wooden ploughshare which cant dig deep, with the help of iron ploughshare it is possible to dig deep and it helped in increase in the food grain production. Agriculture became surplus and people started engaging in activities other than agriculture thus urbanization was followed.
Iltutmish became Sultan after defeating Aibak's son and thus checked principle of heredity at the very beginning.
contribution of Iltutmish for expansion and consolidation of Delhi Sultanat:
Chengiz Khan threat: He had successfully dealt with Chengiz khan threat and saved Delhi Sultanat from attack of Chengiz who had destructed Khwarizm empire very cruelly
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Introduction of coins He introduced silver tanka and copper jittal and monetized economy which is vital for the stability of the empire.
Turkan-i-Chihalagani: He created Turkan-i-Chihalgani or Chalisa which was the body of nobles who assumed the role of king maker thus providing strong administration. However, if king became weak this nobles usurped throne
Iqta and Iqtadar's He introduced Iqta system in India first time in which piece of land was given to sultant officials in lieu of services. Officials were called Iqtadars and supposed to visit the king darbar as a mark of honour to the emperor. Thus, created the body of trusted slaves who could be summoned anytime.
Iron technology came to India with the Aryans and started to be used on large scale from 1000 BC. In South India, it was introduced with the Megalithic culture around the same time. Role played by iron in Ind History is:
1. Agriculture: iron ploughs, axes n other equipments were used for Agri production leading to surplus Agri in 6th century BC. Even the forests of Gangetic plain are said to be cleared using the iron equipments. Though it's role in agriculture is still being debated by the historians.
2. Mahajanapadas: iron weapons played a huge role in the transformation of janpadas to mahajanapadas, leading to pan Ind empire under the Mauryas in Magadha region. The iron mines at Singhbhum n Mayurbhanj were exploited by the Mauryas for this purpose.
3. Wootz steel: the Damascus sword of 1st cent BC, made by the wootz steel was world famous n helped in building of empires outside India, besides profiting Ind manufacturers.
4. Society: the Chariot makers became one of the respected castes in ancient Ind on account on their proficiency of work. Even arthashastra provided harsh punishments for any harm done to artisans n craftsman.
5. Culture: the polished iron pillars were used by Ashoka for his inscriptions which sheds light on the socio political atmosphere of Mauryas. Moreover, the Mehrauli iron pillar by the Guptas is a modern marvel which is still not rusted even after standing in the outside for more than 1500 years.
Thus iron paved the way for the creation of big societies n communities which laid the foundations for Indian History n Culture.
To restrain the Mongol threat Alauddin had to had large army and to maintain such a large army it is necessary to control the market as it was not possible to increase the salaries of such a large army.
Agrarian Reforms
*He fixed the prices of foodgrains by which his armymen can afford good life in minimum salary.
*He also setup the big granaries to store the food grains.
*He inflicted stringent punishment on those who increased the prices and prices cant be increased even at the times of famine.
Economic Reforms
*He was the first Sultan to assess the revenue on the basis of cultivation of land which ensured rich would pay taxes as per their production.
*Even Muqaddams and Khuts are not exempted from the taxes they had to pay same taxes as the others.
*He did not assigned Iqtas instead he started direct revenue system in which revenues were paid by the people directly to the state.
*Revenues were fixed to half of the produce and obliged peasants to pay in cash.
Above reforms helped to curb Mongol threat, prevented rebellion and fleeing of farmers. Some of this reforms were also adopted by Sher Shah and Akbar.
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Q. What is your assessment of Ibn Batutah's Rehla as an important source of Indian History?
Ellora site is built by Rashtrakuta king,it represents the epitome of rock cut architecture. We can find the confluence of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain caves here. In particular, 12 Buddhist, 17 Hindu and 5 Jain caves built in proximity showing religious harmony at then time. Ellora as unique art centre of different cultural streams:
Buddhist Caves: First nine caves amongst the Buddhist caves are monasteries, cave 10 is most famous popularly known as "Carpenters Cave" where 15 foot Buddha statue seated in preaching position.
Hindu Caves: Cave 16 known as Kailasnatha is centre piece of Ellora designed to recall mount Kailash abode of God Shiva. Caves15, 21 and 29 representing the Dashavtara where death of Hiranyakashipu is depicted, Rameshwaram having figurines of river godesses Ganga and Yamuna and Dhumar Lena similiar to Elephanta cave repsectively.
Jain Caves: : Five Jain caves at Ellora belong to ninth and tenth centuries AD all belonging to Digambara sect. They reflects special dimensions of Jain philosophy and severe ascetism. Most remarkable Jain shrines are caves 30, 32 and 33 representing Chhota Kailash, Indra sabha and Jagannath sabha respectively.
Ibn Battuta was Moroccan explorer and known for his extensive travels account of which were published in Rehla (Arabic).and part of it is devoted to life in India. Rehla as a source of Indian history:
Information about administrative structure: He provides information on Tughlaq's empire administration and its structure especially espionage and communication systems. He mentions postal system by Horse and human runners. He mentions famous policies and administrative reforms of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq such as transferring of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. and relief measures during famine in doab.
About nobility and saints: He writes about life style of nobility, various customs and rituals prevailing at the court and monuments, scholars and saint of Delhi. This information gives us an idea about life in Delhi and importance of nobles at then time.
Social and Economic life: His observation about slavery, arts and crafts, caste system social customs, trade—horses, currency system and manufacture of ships in India—, meal and edible consumed. This observation helped us to infer the life of common people and economic conditions in India present at that time.
Despite Rehla is not based on what it's author personally witnessed but it is essential to have an idea about social ,economical and political life of common as well as elite persons.