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Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and highly destructive of all the natural disasters.
Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have proved to be the most devastating and their area of influence is also quite large. These earthquakes result from a series of earth movements brought about by a sudden release of energy during the tectonic activities in the earth’s crust. As compared to these, the earthquakes associated with volcanic eruption, rock fall, landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining areas, impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc. have limited area of influence and the scale of damage.
Indian plate is moving at a speed of one centimetre per year towards the north and northeastern direction and this movement of plates is being constantly obstructed by the Eurasian plate from the north. As a result of this, both the plates are said to be locked with each other resulting in accumulation of energy at different points of time.
Excessive accumulation of energy results in building up of stress, which ultimately leads to the breaking up of the lock and the sudden release of energy, causes earthquakes along the Himalayan arch.
Some of the most vulnerable states are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, and the Darjiling and subdivision of West Bengal and all the seven states of the northeast.
The central-western parts of India, particularly Gujarat (in 1819, 1956 and 2001) and Maharashtra (in 1967 and 1993) have also experienced some severe earthquakes. Earth scientists have found it difficult to explain the occurrence of earthquakes in one of the oldest, most stable and mature landmass of Prominent block for a long time.
Some earth scientists have come up with a theory of emergence of a fault line and energy build-up along the fault line represented by the river Bhima (Krishna) near Latur and Osmanabad (Maharashtra) and the possible breaking down of the Indian plate.
After an intensive analysis of more than 1,200 earthquakes that have occurred in India in different years in the past, and based on these, India is divided into the following five earthquake zones:
(i) Very high damage risk zone (ii) High damage risk zone (iii) Moderate damage risk zone (iv) Low damage risk zone (v) Very low damage risk zone.
Out of these, the first two zones had experienced some of the most devastating earthquakes in India.
Areas vulnerable to these earthquakes are the North-east states, areas to the north of Darbhanga and Araria along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttaranchal, Western Himachal Pradesh (around Dharamshala) and Kashmir Valley in the Himalayan region and the Kuchchh (Gujarat).These are included in the Very High Damage Risk Zone.
Similarly, the remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Northern parts of Punjab, Eastern parts of Haryana, Delhi,Western Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Bihar fall under the High Damage Risk Zone.
Remaining parts of the country fall under moderate to very Low Damage Risk Zone. Most of the areas that can be considered safe are from the stable landmass covered under the Deccan plateau.
SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKES
The idea of an earthquake is often associated with fear and horror due to the scale, magnitude and suddenness at which it spreads disasters on the surface of the earth without discrimination.
It becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of high density of population. It not only damages and destroys the settlements, infrastructure, transport and communication network, industries and other developmental activities but also robs the population of their material and socio-cultural gains that they have preserved over generations.
It renders them homeless, which puts an extra-pressure and stress, particularly on the weak economy of the developing countries.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes have all encompassing disastrous effects on the area of their occurrence. Some of the important ones are listed in Table 7.3.
Earthquakes also have some serious and far-reaching environmental consequences. Surface seismic waves produce fissures on the upper layers of the earth’s crust through which water and other volatile materials gush out, inundating the neighbouring areas.
Earthquakes are also responsible for landslides and often these cause obstructions in the flow of rivers and channels resulting in the formation of reservoirs. Sometimes, rivers also change their course causing floods and other calamities in the affected areas.
EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MITIGATION
The damages caused by earthquakes are more devastating as compare to other disasters. Since it also destroys most of the transport and communication links, providing timely relief to the victims becomes difficult.
It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake; hence, the next best option is to emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures such as:
(i) Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and fast dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas. Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement of tectonic plates.
(ii) Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information among the people and educating them about the ways and means minimizing the adverse impacts of disasters.
(iii) Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction of high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in such areas.
(iv)Making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials in major construction activities in the vulnerable areas.
currently there are only 4 zones...reduced from 5..plz check!!
Approach: Just mention the earthquake zones based on latest version of Seismic zoning map of India where Zone1 is excluded and only 4 zones are there. Most of the books has not covered this correction in their latest version.
Model Answer. India being a large landmass is particularly prone to earthquakes About 60% of India is vulnerable to earthquakes caused by the great, northward grind of the Indian subcontinental landmass. The Indian subcontinent is divided into four seismic zones with respect to the severity of the earthquakes. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale
Zone 5 Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquake in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The region of Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, North Bihar, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.
Zone 4 This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi), Jammu and Kashmir fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Faltan area (Koyananager) is also in zone no-4. In Bihar the northern part of the state like- Raksaul, Near the border of India and Nepal, is also in zone no-4.
Zone 3 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. and also 7.8 The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.
Zone 2
This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10% of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2. Intensity Of Earthquakes In Different Zones Seismic Zone Intensity on Modified Mercalli scale Zone II (Low intensity zone) VI (or less) Zone III (Moderate intensity zone) VII Zone IV (Severe intensity zone) VIII Zone V (Very severe intensity zone) IX (and above) Source: Lok Sabha; Note:Modified Mercalli intensity measures the impact of earthquakes on the surface of the earth.
Shouldn't we try to write answers within the world limit of 10 marks or 12.5 marks. The most difficult part of writing an answer you know to get max marks is trying to compress it, at least that is what i found.
If you give model answers that way, it will help us see what can be eliminated, how it can be presented in the shortest possible way.
I will take care of what u said but i was aiming to give a comprehensive understanding of the topic asked in the question rather than just answering the question only.
yaar sawal hi post karoge ya jawab bhi bataogey....kyuki upsc me sawal jaankar bhi jawab nahi likha paata hai bhai
Checkout, questions on first day and answers on the nextday. I am giving my model answers too apart from the various answers shared by the students here
Tea & coffee are two most important beverage crops of india. Comparison of required conditions for growth are following 1. Temperature- both r tropical & subtropical crops, for tea 20-30c temperature but it can grow up to 35 while for coffee more than 30c temperature is injurious (15-28) 2. Rainfall- high rainfall, for tea 150 to 300 cm, for coffee 150 to 250 cm but no water logging, raimfall through out year however coffee require small drought period 3.soil-laterite high drainage soil for both however aluminium content should be less for coffee 4.both required nitrogenous fertilisers 5.labour intensive-cheap labour Both plantation crops are grown in hill areas at 600 to 1800 m elevation.in india tea are grown in assam , wb (brhamputra & surma valley in NE), western ghat, foot hill of nw himalyia while coffee r mainly planted in western ghat (karnatak, kerla tn) In south india tea crops r planted at higher elevation than coffee because of chemistry of soil. Soil of higher elevation r old in geological process and content higher aluminum content which is not good for coffee.
4. Compare and contrast the conditions of Growth of Tea and Coffee in India. Why Tea grows at higher elevation than Coffee in South India ?
Model Answer: Tea is a dried leaf of a bush. Tea bush is a tropical and sub-tropical plant and thrives well in hot and humid climate.There is a very close relation between climate, the yield and the quality of tea. The Ideal temperature for its growth is 20-30 degree C and the temperatures above 35 degree C and below 10 degree C are harmful for the bush. It requires 150-300 cms of annual rainfall which should be well distributed throughout the year. Whereas Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with temperature varing between 15-28 degree C and rainfall from 150 to 250 cms. (a)While prolonged dry spell is harmful for tea, high humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves. Alternate waves of warm and cool winds are very helpful for tea leaves. Tea is a shade loving plants and develops more vigorously when planted along with shady trees. Coffee doesn’t tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30 degree C and strong sunshine and is generally grown under shady trees.
(b) Tea bush grows well in well-drained, deep, friable loams. However, virgin forests soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best soils for tea plantation. Relatively large proportion of phosphorous and potash in the soil gives special flavor to tea as is the case in Darjeeling. In order to increase the yield proper dose of nitrogenous fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate should be given to the soil. Prolonged drought is also injurious to Coffee. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of berries. Stagnant water is harmful and this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1600m above sea level.
(c)Although tea requires heavy rainfall for its growth, stagnant water is injurious to its roots. It is thus grown on hill slopes where water drains easily and water logging does not take place. Most of tea plantation are found at an elevation ranging from 600-1800m above mean sea level. For Coffee Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon sun and the south-west monsoon winds. Well drained, rich friable loams containing good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation. The soil must be properly matured to retain and replenish fertility and to increase productivity.
(d) Tea production is done in India in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Whereas Coffee production is done in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Tea grows at higher elevation than Coffee in South India because the soils are different. But there is a complex geological story behind it.. If you look at a profile of the mountains of the Western Ghats you will see that they have a step like form. Plateaus or steps alternate with escarpments or steep slopes. Coffee and tea grow on these plateaus. There is a distinct altitudinal control over the distribution of tea and coffee plantations. At altitudes above 2000 m MSL coffee is absent and tea is a monoculture. On plateaus in the altitude range 800 m MSl to 1200 m MSL coffee dominates although tea plantations are also present.
This is because the chemistry of the soils mantling the plateaus is different at different altitude. On the high elevation plateaus (> 2000 m MSL), the soils which go under the broad name bauxite are acidic and contain very high concentration of the mineral Gibbsite. This is a hydrous aluminum oxide. The coffee plants Coffea arabica and Coffea robusta cannot tolerate high levels of aluminum in soils. The tea plant Camelia sinensis however can deal with this enriched Al content of the soil. So tea form a monoculture on these plateaus.
On the lower tiers of the landscape the soils are more alkaline and contain less amounts of Al and more calcium. These are ideal soil conditions for coffee and so the coffee crop dominates these lower elevation plateaus.
5. Cloudbursts have happened in past also, but the amount of death and damage in Uttarakhand is unprecedented. Why? Is this Himalayan Tsunami is a man-made disater? Why or why not?
#1: Roads causing landslides Himalayan Mountains will remain steady if not tampered with much. But 1. the huge expansion of roads and transport. 2. heavy machines plying the earth everyday. 3. Even dynamites are used to cut the mountains and make roads. All these activities had already rendered the mountains unstable. Then rainfall causes landslides and then roads blocked, so rescue force can’t go in, victims can’t go out.
#2: Too much construction 1. In 2012, Ministry of Environment and Forests gives a notification under Environment Protection Act. This notification declares the region Gaumukh and Uttarakashi, along the Bhagirathi river, as an eco-sensitive zone. Meaning following activities had to be banned: a. Hydro project in Bhagirathi has too many hydropower projects, changing river courses, poor structural safety. Unplanned development is destroying the ecology of the mountains. None of the environmental laws are implemented in ecologically fragile areas in India and the development is going unabated. b. A total of 427 dams are planned to be built on rivers. Among these, there are roughly 70 projects built or proposed on the Ganga, all to generate some 10,000 MW of power. This construction has affected 80% of the Bhagirathi and 65% of the Alaknanda. c. Mining has use of dynamites, thus weakened the mountains. Dynamite blasts are required to cut mountains and pave way for the construction of dams. On a Richter scale, such blasts are equivalent to an earthquake of the magnitude of 4.0, which is responsible to aggravate landslides d. Construction activities, especially hotels and resorts, guest houses and travel lodges on the river bed. Everyone trying to make mint money from pilgrims/tourists yet none of them were build with sound engineering or structural safety. e. Exponential increase in the number of vehicles. In 2005-06, 4,000 such vehicles were registered, which jumped to 40,000 in 2012-13.It is an established fact that there is a straight co-relation between tourism increase and higher incidence of landslides.
#3: Fragile Polity of the State • Uttarakhand has seen 6 different Chief Ministers within last 13 years. Meaning average tenure of a CM is ~2 years. • This has resulted in lack of continuity and failure in getting a firm grip on the issues plaguing the state- including disaster management. • Successive CAG reports have made scathing remarks on the lack of disaster management preparations in the Uttarakhand state. Yet no action was taken. • political fragility has resulted in ad-hoc and unplanned development. • Successive governments have failed in creating any sort of medium term or long-term plan or vision for the state. • To put this in other words, when governments change too quick- the main goal of MLAs and Ministers is how to extract maximum cash from builders, mining mafias and corrupt bureaucrats who want transfer-posting in plump position. Hence, Disaster management doesn’t even come in their top-100 priority list of such politicians. • Insufficient resources- Only 4,000 army personnel have been deployed on duty. And only 100 police men are trained on emergency medical procedures while there is no one who is trained to manage a natural calamity. The disaster management committee in the state had not met for six years and they were not at all prepared to handle such a huge catastrophe.
#4: Absence of tourism management The Govt. of Uttarakhand spends Rs. 70 crores every year (as per books) in order to manage tourism in Uttarakhand. In 2012, an additional relief fund of Rs. 23.4 crores has also been set aside. Despite this, you will not find even a single clean toilet here. Every year an approx. 3 crores people visit Uttarakhand, but there are only 2 lakh beds as part of the lodging arrangement (out of which 75% are in dharmshalas and 25% are in hotels)
#5: Non-existent governing authority No governing authority has been set up to manage pilgrim tourists visiting “char dham”. There is not even a Nodal Officer who can monitor the yatra arrangements.
#6: No crowd management There is a permit system in Amarnath and Mansarovar yatras. Even for Vaishno Devi trip, there is a crowd management in place. But, there is no such system here. The RESULT: Death Toll 2008 2009 2010 In road accidents 543 278 354 Due to Natural Calamity 220 83 176
#7: Reduction in forest cover The forest cover in Uttarakhand in 1970 was 84.9%. This got reduced to 75.4% in 2000.
#8: Careless organizations a) IMD • IMD was unable to alert State-authorities in time. It didn’t have Doppler radars in the Himalayan region to predict onset of cloudbursts. • Only after this disaster happened, Dept. of sci.tech now talks about setting up Doppler radars in the region. • Inaccurate and incomplete prediction by the Met department: Monitoring, forecasting, and early-warning systems in the Met department are very poor in the whole of India and Uttarakhand specifically. This department is in dire need of more investment. b) NDRF • National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was formed after Tsunami in 2003. • but has grossly failed both in planning and implementation. • It didn’t even have sufficient life-jackets in Rudraprayag. Overall, there was no accountability and no coordination. So the disaster was termed as man-made due to mismanagement at various levels
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Find at xaam.in they have from January to August 2015
All tests are available - 10 For Pub Ad and 18 For GS.
Model Answer:
Tea is a dried leaf of a bush. Tea bush is a tropical and sub-tropical plant and thrives well in hot and humid climate.There is a very close relation between climate, the yield and the quality of tea. The Ideal temperature for its growth is 20-30 degree C and the temperatures above 35 degree C and below 10 degree C are harmful for the bush. It requires 150-300 cms of annual rainfall which should be well distributed throughout the year. Whereas Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with temperature varing between 15-28 degree C and rainfall from 150 to 250 cms.
(a)While prolonged dry spell is harmful for tea, high humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves. Alternate waves of warm and cool winds are very helpful for tea leaves. Tea is a shade loving plants and develops more vigorously when planted along with shady trees. Coffee doesn’t tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30 degree C and strong sunshine and is generally grown under shady trees.
(b) Tea bush grows well in well-drained, deep, friable loams. However, virgin forests soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best soils for tea plantation. Relatively large proportion of phosphorous and potash in the soil gives special flavor to tea as is the case in Darjeeling. In order to increase the yield proper dose of nitrogenous fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate should be given to the soil. Prolonged drought is also injurious to Coffee. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of berries. Stagnant water is harmful and this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1600m above sea level.
(c)Although tea requires heavy rainfall for its growth, stagnant water is injurious to its roots. It is thus grown on hill slopes where water drains easily and water logging does not take place. Most of tea plantation are found at an elevation ranging from 600-1800m above mean sea level. For Coffee Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon sun and the south-west monsoon winds. Well drained, rich friable loams containing good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation. The soil must be properly matured to retain and replenish fertility and to increase productivity.
(d) Tea production is done in India in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Whereas Coffee production is done in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Tea grows at higher elevation than Coffee in South India because the soils are different. But there is a complex geological story behind it..
If you look at a profile of the mountains of the Western Ghats you will see that they have a step like form. Plateaus or steps alternate with escarpments or steep slopes. Coffee and tea grow on these plateaus. There is a distinct altitudinal control over the distribution of tea and coffee plantations. At altitudes above 2000 m MSL coffee is absent and tea is a monoculture. On plateaus in the altitude range 800 m MSl to 1200 m MSL coffee dominates although tea plantations are also present.
This is because the chemistry of the soils mantling the plateaus is different at different altitude. On the high elevation plateaus (> 2000 m MSL), the soils which go under the broad name bauxite are acidic and contain very high concentration of the mineral Gibbsite. This is a hydrous aluminum oxide. The coffee plants Coffea arabica and Coffea robusta cannot tolerate high levels of aluminum in soils. The tea plant Camelia sinensis however can deal with this enriched Al content of the soil. So tea form a monoculture on these plateaus.
On the lower tiers of the landscape the soils are more alkaline and contain less amounts of Al and more calcium. These are ideal soil conditions for coffee and so the coffee crop dominates these lower elevation plateaus.
#1: Roads causing landslides
Himalayan Mountains will remain steady if not tampered with much. But
1. the huge expansion of roads and transport.
2. heavy machines plying the earth everyday.
3. Even dynamites are used to cut the mountains and make roads.
All these activities had already rendered the mountains unstable. Then rainfall causes landslides and then roads blocked, so rescue force can’t go in, victims can’t go out.
#2: Too much construction
1. In 2012, Ministry of Environment and Forests gives a notification under Environment Protection Act. This notification declares the region Gaumukh and Uttarakashi, along the Bhagirathi river, as an eco-sensitive zone. Meaning following activities had to be banned:
a. Hydro project in Bhagirathi has too many hydropower projects, changing river courses, poor structural safety. Unplanned development is destroying the ecology of the mountains. None of the environmental laws are implemented in ecologically fragile areas in India and the development is going unabated.
b. A total of 427 dams are planned to be built on rivers. Among these, there are roughly 70 projects built or proposed on the Ganga, all to generate some 10,000 MW of power. This construction has affected 80% of the Bhagirathi and 65% of the Alaknanda.
c. Mining has use of dynamites, thus weakened the mountains. Dynamite blasts are required to cut mountains and pave way for the construction of dams. On a Richter scale, such blasts are equivalent to an earthquake of the magnitude of 4.0, which is responsible to aggravate landslides
d. Construction activities, especially hotels and resorts, guest houses and travel lodges on the river bed. Everyone trying to make mint money from pilgrims/tourists yet none of them were build with sound engineering or structural safety.
e. Exponential increase in the number of vehicles. In 2005-06, 4,000 such vehicles were registered, which jumped to 40,000 in 2012-13.It is an established fact that there is a straight co-relation between tourism increase and higher incidence of landslides.
#3: Fragile Polity of the State
• Uttarakhand has seen 6 different Chief Ministers within last 13 years. Meaning average tenure of a CM is ~2 years.
• This has resulted in lack of continuity and failure in getting a firm grip on the issues plaguing the state- including disaster management.
• Successive CAG reports have made scathing remarks on the lack of disaster management preparations in the Uttarakhand state. Yet no action was taken.
• political fragility has resulted in ad-hoc and unplanned development.
• Successive governments have failed in creating any sort of medium term or long-term plan or vision for the state.
• To put this in other words, when governments change too quick- the main goal of MLAs and Ministers is how to extract maximum cash from builders, mining mafias and corrupt bureaucrats who want transfer-posting in plump position. Hence, Disaster management doesn’t even come in their top-100 priority list of such politicians.
• Insufficient resources- Only 4,000 army personnel have been deployed on duty. And only 100 police men are trained on emergency medical procedures while there is no one who is trained to manage a natural calamity. The disaster management committee in the state had not met for six years and they were not at all prepared to handle such a huge catastrophe.
#4: Absence of tourism management
The Govt. of Uttarakhand spends Rs. 70 crores every year (as per books) in order to manage tourism in Uttarakhand. In 2012, an additional relief fund of Rs. 23.4 crores has also been set aside. Despite this, you will not find even a single clean toilet here.
Every year an approx. 3 crores people visit Uttarakhand, but there are only 2 lakh beds as part of the lodging arrangement (out of which 75% are in dharmshalas and 25% are in hotels)
#5: Non-existent governing authority
No governing authority has been set up to manage pilgrim tourists visiting “char dham”. There is not even a Nodal Officer who can monitor the yatra arrangements.
#6: No crowd management
There is a permit system in Amarnath and Mansarovar yatras. Even for Vaishno Devi trip, there is a crowd management in place. But, there is no such system here.
The RESULT:
Death Toll 2008 2009 2010
In road accidents 543 278 354
Due to Natural Calamity 220 83 176
#7: Reduction in forest cover
The forest cover in Uttarakhand in 1970 was 84.9%. This got reduced to 75.4% in 2000.
#8: Careless organizations
a) IMD
• IMD was unable to alert State-authorities in time. It didn’t have Doppler radars in the Himalayan region to predict onset of cloudbursts.
• Only after this disaster happened, Dept. of sci.tech now talks about setting up Doppler radars in the region.
• Inaccurate and incomplete prediction by the Met department: Monitoring, forecasting, and early-warning systems in the Met department are very poor in the whole of India and Uttarakhand specifically. This department is in dire need of more investment.
b) NDRF
• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was formed after Tsunami in 2003.
• but has grossly failed both in planning and implementation.
• It didn’t even have sufficient life-jackets in Rudraprayag.
Overall, there was no accountability and no coordination. So the disaster was termed as man-made due to mismanagement at various levels