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Various theories regarding transition regarding shift from hunter gatherer to sedentary agriculturist are
1 Gordon Childe theory: Environmental changes caused the shift. Due to shift of summer rains many parts of west asia became dry. This led to ppl moving closer to rivers and oasis which caused a new set of relationship between animal and plants i.e domestication and agriculture criticism the environmental changes happened at an earlier period hence it cannot describe the transition to a sedantary agriculture society
2 Braidwood theory: domestication happened in certain nuclear zones which supported wild plants and had scope for agriculture. Domestication was the natural cause of human experimentation with environment
3 Binford theory: upset in balance of food and people led to change in subsistence pattern i.e increase in population relative to food resources led to agriculture and domestication Criticism population at that time was fairly small as compared to resources so this may not fully explain the transition
4 Genetic changes in plants and increased yield due to cross fertilization lead to increase in production. this acted as an incentive for humans to turn their attention to agriculture rather than just gathering food.
5 Environmental changes ( warm wet climate) may have led to expansion of natural habitat of wild cereals which led to its domestication by humans who were perhaps earlier less aware about the Plant
1. Chamber Tombs: it usually has a chamber composed of 2 or 4 vertical slab of stones capped by a horizontal stone. -- topikal type has burial urn placed in underground pit covered by low circular capstone. --kudaikal type has urn in a chamber consisting of vertical slab of stones capped by hemispherical type structure
2Unchambered Burial --Pit Burial: it is of 3 type ; pit circle if pit burial site is marked by large stone, Cairn if there is a heap of large stone over burial spot, cairn stone circle if stone circle and piled up stone both are present.pit burial marked by single standing stone is called menhir
Copper Hoard
1.Copper hoard refers to copper objects found together in various parts of country. The hoard include weapons , tools and anthromorphic figures. they are dated between 3rd and 2nd millenium BCE
2. Found mostly in Ganga valley, bengal and odissa with most concentration of hoard in doab region
Q1. " THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VALUES OF IVC HAD AN ABRUPT END".COMMENT CRITICALLY.
IVC on a whole did not come to an abrupt end instead it's urban features declined and rural ones expanded. Similarly the social and cultural values existed with continuities and changes.
There is an overlap between the late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware cultures .Similarly overlaps are visible at Ochre colored Pottery levels in western Uttar Pradesh.The late Harppan culture is represented by Jhukar culture in Sind and the cemetry-H culture in Punjab. Evidence show that Harappan people moved to western and southern parts of sub continent in later period.
There are many Harappan features which are discernible in later periods in fact some can even be observed today in our society. The pashupatinath seal is considered by many as proto Shiva, the worship of mother goddess reappeared in later years. The water ablution ceremonies of Hinduism can be traced back to Harappan period. The rural homes of today India resembles those of Harappan period with a courtyard in between and rooms surrounding it.
IVC was a great ancient civilization which apparently live some where in India even today , today it's high time we take cue from the sanitation and water conservation practices of IVC and incorporate them in contemporary programs like Swach Bharat mission and keep the legacy of IVC alive.
MESOLITHIC AGE WAS HUMBLE BEGINNING OF THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION.ELABORATE. ALSO EXPLAIN BRIEFLY HOW THE REVOLUTION HAS IMPACTED ENVIRONMENT.
1. some evidence of domestication of animal has been found in mesolithic settlements ex bhimbetka ; domesticated cattle
2 sedentary settlement showed a beginning during this period
3 some evidence of settled agriculture found in mesolithic sites ex belan valley
4 some of the peaceful depiction of animals in mesolithic art indicate that it may be the beginning non hostile relationship between man and animal
5 overall it can be inferred that there are some evidences of settled agriculture, domestication of animal in mesolithic sites but it remained primarily a hunter gathering society
Environmental change
Neolithic revolution saw the beginning of agriculture and settled society. agriculture meant that for the first time un natural deforestation took place on this planet . Agriculture needed irrigation which meant manipulation of water resources. For deforestation mass burning to clear the forest could have added green house gases in atmosphere. preference of wild cereal over other forms of vegetation meant taht the "natural"species that were meant to grow were replaced by cereals. Increase in no of settlement meant that more forests would have been cleared. Thus Neolithic revolution formed the first link in chain of Human induced environmental manipulation.
1.Trace the development of urbanization from the third millennium B.C.E. to 6th century B. 2 To what extent archaeological materials are useful in understanding the progress of neolithic man in India 3 Discuss the extent, subsistance economy and settlement pattern of Megalithic People.
3. Discuss the extent, subsistence economy and settlement pattern of Megalithic People.
ANS: Megalitihic is one of those cultures in the world which is almost found in every continent with variations. So is the case in india from valley of kashmir to the far south and in aravalli hills in west to Assam in the east. The culture is still prevailing in the khasis and mundas of assam & chotanagpur respectively. Burzahom , gufkral , and almora are the most significant sites in the north. In the vindhyas allahabad ,varnasi ,bhandra districts contain many sites. deosa in rajasthan and in south the region south of nagpur and godavari river .
Subsistence :
based on the evidences found it is generally believed that megalithic culture people practiced agriculture and domesticated animals. They may have even introduced tank irrigation in south india. Evidences are also found of embankments and irrigation in other megalithic sites of india. Rice , barley maize were the common crops. Pottery was also a profession. Megalithic people were aware of iron and in south india iron craft even outnumber other metal crafts. Various crafts of different kinds are found.
Settlement pattern:
MEgalithic culture is not a homogenous one, there are diff variations within it geographically. Generally,, megaliths are concentrated invariably on the slopes of the hills or on elevated ground. A place near by a water resources was mostly selected.These highly intelligent and pragmatic communities were to see that the fertile arable lands were not wasted from encroachments by their graves. Unproductive foot-hills, rocky and gravelly lands were used for the location of their graves, while lower down, the plains were reserved for agricultural purposes.
1.Trace the development of urbanization from the third millennium B.C.E. to 6th century B.
ans
The first cities in the ancient india started emerging in the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjodaro and harappa were the first great cities,lothal,dholavira and others emerged later. There has been various views propounded to describe the rise of urbanization.Influence of west asia~~ diffusionist theory by gordon,mackay etc ,cultural evolution theory~~by A ghosh M K Mughal etc.
In the beginning of 3RD millennium climatic conditions,fertile plains and wide availability of water resources resulted in increase of agri production and its know how. It left room for the increasing population to pursue other profession such as craftsman,merchants,metallurgy etc. The trade too flourished within and with west asian civilzation in teak,lapis lazulli etc. The overall agri and trade surplus triggered the rise of urban centres during the Mature IVC phase.
The sudden decline of IVC resulted in the decline in of urbanization. However, the phase of urbanization started to ignite again during the 7th century. Several reason for the second urbanization were rise of FE tech and its use in clearing forests and for other agri and livelihood purposes, new wet paddy cultivation. All this coupled with new ideas and beliefs culminated in rise of urban centres. From 6th century the phase of second urbanization began with large ns cities such avanti,kosala,rajgriha,etc.
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Comments
1 Gordon Childe theory: Environmental changes caused the shift. Due to shift of summer rains many parts of west asia became dry. This led to ppl moving closer to rivers and oasis which caused a new set of relationship between animal and plants i.e domestication and agriculture
criticism the environmental changes happened at an earlier period hence it cannot describe the transition to a sedantary agriculture society
2 Braidwood theory: domestication happened in certain nuclear zones which supported wild plants and had scope for agriculture. Domestication was the natural cause of human experimentation with environment
3 Binford theory: upset in balance of food and people led to change in subsistence pattern i.e increase in population relative to food resources led to agriculture and domestication
Criticism population at that time was fairly small as compared to resources so this may not fully explain the transition
4 Genetic changes in plants and increased yield due to cross fertilization lead to increase in production. this acted as an incentive for humans to turn their attention to agriculture rather than just gathering food.
5 Environmental changes ( warm wet climate) may have led to expansion of natural habitat of wild cereals which led to its domestication by humans who were perhaps earlier less aware about the Plant
-- topikal type has burial urn placed in underground pit covered by low circular capstone. --kudaikal type has urn in a chamber consisting of vertical slab of stones capped by hemispherical type structure
2Unchambered Burial
--Pit Burial: it is of 3 type ; pit circle if pit burial site is marked by large stone, Cairn if there is a heap of large stone over burial spot, cairn stone circle if stone circle and piled up stone both are present.pit burial marked by single standing stone is called menhir
Copper Hoard
1.Copper hoard refers to copper objects found together in various parts of country. The hoard include weapons , tools and anthromorphic figures. they are dated between 3rd and 2nd millenium BCE
2. Found mostly in Ganga valley, bengal and odissa with most concentration of hoard in doab region
P 243
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA224&lpg=PA224&dq=cairns+megalith+upinder+singh&source=bl&ots=xe8y1VcTmG&sig=73JjZz-1jzNSWdqbVAkX8Bgm8O0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAWoVChMI95Ct7ciSyAIVDhqOCh132Ahv#v=onepage&q=cairns megalith upinder singh&f=false
IVC on a whole did not come to an abrupt end instead it's urban features declined and rural ones expanded. Similarly the social and cultural values existed with continuities and changes.
There is an overlap between the late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware cultures .Similarly overlaps are visible at Ochre colored Pottery levels in western Uttar Pradesh.The late Harppan culture is represented by Jhukar culture in Sind and the cemetry-H culture in Punjab. Evidence show that Harappan people moved to western and southern parts of sub continent in later period.
There are many Harappan features which are discernible in later periods in fact some can even be observed today in our society. The pashupatinath seal is considered by many as proto Shiva, the worship of mother goddess reappeared in later years. The water ablution ceremonies of Hinduism can be traced back to Harappan period. The rural homes of today India resembles those of Harappan period with a courtyard in between and rooms surrounding it.
IVC was a great ancient civilization which apparently live some where in India even today , today it's high time we take cue from the sanitation and water conservation practices of IVC and incorporate them in contemporary programs like Swach Bharat mission and keep the legacy of IVC alive.
1. some evidence of domestication of animal has been found in mesolithic settlements ex bhimbetka ; domesticated cattle
2 sedentary settlement showed a beginning during this period
3 some evidence of settled agriculture found in mesolithic sites ex belan valley
4 some of the peaceful depiction of animals in mesolithic art indicate that it may be the beginning non hostile relationship between man and animal
5 overall it can be inferred that there are some evidences of settled agriculture, domestication of animal in mesolithic sites but it remained primarily a hunter gathering society
Environmental change
Neolithic revolution saw the beginning of agriculture and settled society. agriculture meant that for the first time un natural deforestation took place on this planet . Agriculture needed irrigation which meant manipulation of water resources. For deforestation mass burning to clear the forest could have added green house gases in atmosphere. preference of wild cereal over other forms of vegetation meant taht the "natural"species that were meant to grow were replaced by cereals. Increase in no of settlement meant that more forests would have been cleared. Thus Neolithic revolution formed the first link in chain of Human induced environmental manipulation.
2 To what extent archaeological materials are useful in understanding the progress of neolithic man in India
3 Discuss the extent, subsistance economy and settlement pattern of Megalithic People.
@sunnykumar @biharKeLala
3. Discuss the extent, subsistence economy and settlement pattern of Megalithic People.
ANS: Megalitihic is one of those cultures in the world which is almost found in every continent with variations. So is the case in india from valley of kashmir to the far south and in aravalli hills in west to Assam in the east. The culture is still prevailing in the khasis and mundas of assam & chotanagpur respectively. Burzahom , gufkral , and almora are the most significant sites in the north. In the vindhyas allahabad ,varnasi ,bhandra districts contain many sites. deosa in rajasthan and in south the region south of nagpur and godavari river .
Subsistence :
based on the evidences found it is generally believed that megalithic culture people practiced agriculture and domesticated animals. They may have even introduced tank irrigation in south india. Evidences are also found of embankments and irrigation in other megalithic sites of india. Rice , barley maize were the common crops. Pottery was also a profession. Megalithic people were aware of iron and in south india iron craft even outnumber other metal crafts. Various crafts of different kinds are found.
Settlement pattern:
MEgalithic culture is not a homogenous one, there are diff variations within it geographically. Generally,, megaliths are concentrated invariably on the slopes of the hills or on elevated ground. A place near by a water resources was mostly selected.These highly intelligent and pragmatic communities were to see that the fertile arable lands were not wasted from encroachments by their graves. Unproductive foot-hills, rocky and gravelly lands were used for the location of their graves, while lower down, the plains were reserved for agricultural purposes.
ans
The first cities in the ancient india started emerging in the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjodaro and harappa were the first great cities,lothal,dholavira and others emerged later. There has been various views propounded to describe the rise of urbanization.Influence of west asia~~ diffusionist theory by gordon,mackay etc ,cultural evolution theory~~by A ghosh M K Mughal etc.
In the beginning of 3RD millennium climatic conditions,fertile plains and wide availability of water resources resulted in increase of agri production and its know how. It left room for the increasing population to pursue other profession such as craftsman,merchants,metallurgy etc. The trade too flourished within and with west asian civilzation in teak,lapis lazulli etc. The overall agri and trade surplus triggered the rise of urban centres during the Mature IVC phase.
The sudden decline of IVC resulted in the decline in of urbanization. However, the phase of urbanization started to ignite again during the 7th century. Several reason for the second urbanization were rise of FE tech and its use in clearing forests and for other agri and livelihood purposes, new wet paddy cultivation. All this coupled with new ideas and beliefs culminated in rise of urban centres. From 6th century the phase of second urbanization began with large ns cities such avanti,kosala,rajgriha,etc.
REviews guys